kayers of the atmostphere

Exosphere

The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward. It is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. The particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another. Since the particles rarely collide, the atmosphere no longer behaves like a fluid. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.

Thermosphere

Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with height. Unlike in the stratosphere, where the inversion is caused by absorption of radiation by ozone, in the thermosphere the inversion is a result of the extremely low density of molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise to 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that temperature in the usual sense is not well defined. The air is so rarified, that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometer between collisions with other molecules.^[3] The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). Because of the relative infrequency of molecular collisions, air above the mesopause is poorly mixed compared to air below. While the composition from the troposphere to the mesosphere is fairly constant, above a certain point, air is poorly mixed and becomes compositionally stratified. The point dividing these two regions is known as the turbopause. The region below is the homosphere, and the region above is the heterosphere. The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from about 350–800 km (220–500 mi; 1,100,000–2,600,000 ft).

Mesosphere

The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. The mesopause, the temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C (−121 °F; 188.1 K).^[4] At the mesopause, temperatures may drop to −100 °C (−148 °F; 173.1 K).^[5] Due to the cold temperature of the mesophere, water vapor is frozen, forming ice clouds (or Noctilucent clouds). A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES, form many miles above thunderclouds in the troposphere.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height due to increased absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. While the temperature may be -60° −60 °C (−76 °F; 213.2 K) at the troposphere, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near freezing^{[citation needed]}. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is 1/1000 sea level.

Troposphere

The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator^[6], with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word "τροπή", trope, meaning turn or overturn). The troposphere contains roughly 80%^{[citation needed]} of the mass of the atmosphere. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.

Other layers

Within the five principal layers determined by temperature are several layers determined by other properties.

• The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–22 mi; 49,000–110,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

• The ionosphere, the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 620 mi; 160,000 to 3,300,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on the Earth. It is responsible for auroras.

• The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. In the homosphere the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.^[7] The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Above the turbopause at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft) (essentially corresponding to the mesopause), the composition varies with altitude. This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.

• The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, while at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 m on clear, calm nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)^[8] or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K),^[9] depending on the reference.^{[10] [11][12]}

Lesterabedejos29

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	THE MONTAUK MYSTERY (and Monster ) Mainstream public awareness of this "Montauk" mystery seems to have really begun in 1992 when Preston Nichols and Peter Moon wrote a book called "The Montauk Project - "Experiments in Time". Since then many researchers, fanatics, serious scientists, journalists, Long Island residents and conspiracy theorists have dug away at the claims made and this story is the result. We’ve done our best to connect up the pieces and present a “big picture” in an objective way. Long Island has always been New York's party-playground but it has also been the location of many very "strange" and important military bases and scientific research facilities. Some are still there and remain operational.	"A picture circulating on the Internet of the alleged Montauk Monster" (A remarkably "professional" picture given that it was taken in a hurry by a teenage girl with her friends camera.) It's about the size of a cat.

OUTRAGEOUS HOAX OR PROFESSIONAL COVER UP? If ever there was a mystery that has everything from UFOs to USA Government Mind Control experiments then this Montauk event has it. In fact, it seems as if this mystery has everything that any paranoid conspiracy theorist could ever wish for. Weird Experiments, Missing Nazi Gold, Time Travel, Corporate Neo-Orders, Nazi Scientists, Invisibility, Secret Weapons, Abductions, Men in Black, Biogenetics, Secret Animal Research, Wormholes, Black holes, Displaced Native Indians, Inter-dimensional Portals, The Mafia, Bolivian Drug Cartels, Secret Agents and even an Alien or Mutant Monster (photographs available). This bizarre mystery has it all! Books have been written about it, people have allegedly been sent to jail just for investigating it and regardless of the huge interest it is generating on the Internet – mainstream media won’t touch it. And ... who could blame them? But is there really something to this story? Before you dismiss this mystery as the hallucinations of the lunatic fringe or the maligned efforts of marketing people, just remember that one of the best ways to hide something is to “muddy-the-waters” by adding so much nonsense to a subject that people simply don’t know what to believe and what to discard – and so to save time and effort they discard everything! This is a genuine misinformation tactic sometimes referred to as the “Wood-for-the-Trees” or “Subject Assassination” method. “Just because you’re paranoid doesn't mean they’re not out to get you!” Kurt Cobain - American Musician – Nirvana - 1967-1994. The circumstances of Mr. Corbain’s apparent suicide are still a matter of debate. Before we go any further please note that Aquiziam is not trying to solve this mystery (no more letters please unless you have seriously hard evidence) – we merely wish to represent it in an objective way. That’s the purpose of the website. As always ... we encourage our readers to be sceptical, to do their own research and to make up their own minds. “The last civil liberty that people should be prepared to lose is the right to think for themselves. Sadly, because of contentment and laziness, it is often the first that they give away.” Paul Vincent, British Author (1964 - ) THE MYSTERY Given that the modern (Western) history of Long Island (and Montauk), USA, starts as early as 1524 and that it has experienced many changes in culture and occupation, it is not surprising that it has a rich record of dark and sometimes inexplicable incidents. We may list more of these later in another section. There are three main parts to this 60 year Montauk Mystery that may or may not be interlinked. The Philadelphia Experiment and Montauk Project (Camp Hero / Montauk Air Force Base) Fort Terry and the Plum Island Animal Disease Centre (Plum Island) The Montauk Monster (Ditch Plains Beach - Montauk) The area of Montauk is located at the tip of the south fork of Long Island which, in turn, forms part of the Eastern Seaboard of the USA and is the dominant offshore landmass that stretches from New York towards the Cape Cod Peninsular. If there was ever a place perfectly suited for secret activity then this is it. Heavily wooded in places, surrounded by water on three sides, pock-marked by marshes, isolated and easily secured, Long Island and the Montauk District in particular is just the sort of place we would choose. (50 years ago) Over the years Long Island and other smaller islands near it have been, and still are, home to specialist research organisations. Only a picture can prove what we mean.